Definitions for Language Arts 5:
(LA.05.01) Compound Subject:
Definition: A subject is the part of the sentence that does something or is talked about. A sentence containing more than one simple subject is said to have a compound subject.
Example: Joey and Marie write news stories. (The sentence contains the compound subject Joey and Marie made up of the two simple subjects, Joey and Marie.)
(LA.05.01) Antecedent:
Definition: An antecedent is the noun that a pronoun refers to or replaces. All pronouns have antecedents.
Example: Thomas Jefferson was the third U.S. president. He wrote the Declaration of Independence. (Thomas Jefferson is the antecedent of the pronoun he.)
(LA.05.01) Gender of nouns:
Definition: Nouns have gender. They are feminine (female), masculine (male), neuter (neither male nor female), or indefinite (male or female).
Examples: Some feminine nouns are cow, hen, and mother. Some masculine nouns are bull, rooster, and uncle. Some neuter nouns are tree, cobweb, and closet. Some indefinite nouns are child, pilot, and dentist.
(LA.05.02) Combining sentences:
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Verbal phrase: A verbal phrase is a group of words introduced by a verbal (a verb used as another part of speech). There are three types of verbals: (1) Gerunds: Running long distances has always been a part of the Olympics. (Running long distances is a gerund phrase that serves as the subject of the sentence.) (2) Participles: Starting as a national festival, the Olympics has grown into a huge international event. (Starting as a national festival is a participial phrase modifying the noun Olympics.) (3) Infinitives: The festival was held to honor Zeus. (To honor Zeus is an infinitive phrase, and it serves as an adverb modifying was held.) |
Example: Running long distances has always been a part of the Olympics. Throwing javelins has always been included, too. The Olympics also have jumping competitions. Combined: Running long distances, throwing javelins, and jumping competitions have always been a part of the Olympics. | |
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Dependent/independent clauses: A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate. An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause plus an independent clause forms a complex sentence. Note: Some dependent clauses begin with a relative pronoun like who or that. Dependent (or subordinate) clauses can also be joined to an independent (or main) clause by means of subordinating conjunctions such as because, as, when, or though. |
Example: The Greeks included wrestling as an Olympic sport. Later, they added wrestling. Combined: The Greeks included wrestling as an Olympic sport before they added boxing. | |
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Adverbial clause: An adverbial clause is used like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. All adverb clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction. Examples of subordinating conjunctions are because, as, when, or though. |
Example: I can study hard. Then I will pass the test. Combined: If I study hard, I will pass this test. | |
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Relative clause: A relative clause is one way to expand sentences by giving more information about the subject of the sentence. The clause begins with a relative pronoun. Examples of relative pronouns are who, whom, which, that, whose. |
Example: The cat purred for a treat. She loved leftovers. Combined: The cat, who loves leftovers, purred for a treat. | |
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Parallel constructions (parallelism): Repeating similar grammatical structures (words, phrases, or sentences) to give writing rhythm. |
Example: The doctor took her temperature. Then he checked her heartbeat. He also tested her reflexes. Combined: The doctor took her temperature, checked her heartbeat, and tested her reflexes. |
(LA.05.03) Correct dangling syntax:
Definition: Syntax refers to the way in which words are put together to form phrases, clauses, or sentences. Dangling syntax is when the words are misplaced so that they appear to be associated with the wrong word.
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Dangling (misplaced) modifiers: A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that limits or qualifies the sense of another word or word group. When modifiers are not close to the words they describe the sentence may not say what is meant. |
Example: After completing the assignment, the teacher met with both of us. (This sentence says that the teacher completed the assignment.) Correct: After completing the assignment, both of us met with the teacher. | |
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Dangling dependent clauses: If the dependent clause is not connected to the independent clause, a subordinate conjunction (examples: because, as, when) or a relative pronoun (examples: who, that) is necessary to complete the sentence. |
Example: Sparrows make nests in barns. They keep warm in winter. Correct: Sparrows make nests in barns so that they can keep warm in winter. | |
| Lost verbs: If the verb is placed poorly in the sentence, it may not be clear who is performing the action or just what is happening. |
Example: The snow has been for three straight days falling. (The verb phrase is broken up in a confusing way. It appears that the days are falling rather than the snow is falling.) Correct: The snow has been falling for three straight days. | |
| Dangling relative clauses: A relative clause is a dependent clause that begins with a relative pronoun, such as who, whom, which, that, whose. |
Example: The cat purred for a treat, who loves leftovers. (In this sentence, the treat loves leftovers instead of the cat.) Correct: The cat, who loves leftovers, purred for a treat. | |
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Participle: A participle is a verb form usually ending in ing or ed. A participle functions as an adjective but also retains some of the characteristics of a verb. It might be thought of as a “verbal adjective.” Care must be taken in incorporating such phrases into sentences. Readers will ordinarily associate a participle with the noun, noun phrase, or pronoun adjacent to it. |
Example: He watched his horse race carrying a racing sheet under his arm. Since "horse" is the adjacent noun, it appears that the horse is carrying the racing sheet! Correct: Carrying a racing sheet under his arm, he watched the horse race. |
(LA.05.04) Rules of sentence syntax:
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Run-on sentences: A run-on sentence has two sentences joined without punctuation or without a connecting word (and, but, or). |
Example: I thought the baseball game would never end our team finally won in the 12th inning. Correct: I thought the baseball game would never end. Our team finally won in the 12th inning. | |
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Sentence fragments: The subject is the part of the sentence that does something or is talked about (in bold). The predicate is the part of a sentence that says something about the subject (underlined). The example sentence would be a fragment if either the subject or predicate were missing, because it would then not express a complete thought. | Example: My best friend and I wrote a funny story. | |
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Complete passive constructions: Voice indicates whether the subject is acting or being acted upon. Active voice indicates that the subject of the verb is, has been or will be doing something. (Harriet Tubman made many rescue trips.) Passive voice indicates that the subject of the verb is being, has been, or will be acted upon. |
Example: Many rescue trips made by Harriet Tubman. Correct: Many rescue trips were made by Harriet Tubman. | |
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Correct errors of subject-verb agreement: The parts of a sentence must “agree” with one another. If you use a singular subject, use a singular verb. If you use a plural subject, use a plural verb. In the examples the subjects are in bold and the verbs are underlined. |
Examples: One Subject - Carmen goes to Tucson every summer. (The subject Carmen and the verb goes are singular.) Compound Subjects – Hiro and Sue go to Seattle. (If a sentence contains a compound subject connected by and, it needs a plural verb.) NOTE: When the subject is separated from the verb by words or phrases, you must check carefully to see that the subject agrees with the verb. (i.e. A group of students is writing a play.) Also watch carefully when the verb comes after the subject in a sentence. (i.e. On the branch sit two birds.) | |
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Verb agreement with collective nouns: A collective noun names a collection of persons, animals, places, or things. Use a singular verb with collective nouns. |
Example: class, team, herd, flock, United States, Andes Mountains, batch, bunch The team goes to the library tomorrow. | |
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Fragments caused by gerund "faux" (false) predicates: A gerund is a verb form that ends in ing and is used as a noun. It is easy to mistake a gerund for the predicate, assuming that it must be the verb in the sentence. |
Examples: Sleeping is fun. (The gerund sleeping serves as the subject in this sentence.) Running long distances has always been a part of the Olympics. | |
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Complex sentences with missing verbs: A complex sentence joins two ideas connected by words called subordinate conjunctions (after, when, since, because, etc.) and relative pronouns (who, whose, which, and that). | Example: Japanese writing, which must be learned by all students, called hiragana, katakana, and kanji. (Notice the verb is is missing to make the sentence complete.) |
(LA.05.05) Regular and irregular adjectives and adverbs:
| Root word | Comparative - used when two things are compared. | Superlative - used when three or more things are being compared. | ||
| Regular adjectives follow the usual pattern of forming the comparative (-er) and superlative (-est) forms. | My sister is tall. | My brother is taller. | My uncle is the tallest. | |
| Irregular adjectives do not follow the usual pattern. | The tomato soup tastes good. | The chicken soup tastes better. | The onion soup tastes the best! | |
| Regular adverbs follow the usual pattern of forming the comparative (add -er to one-syllable adverbs and more or less before longer adverbs) and superlative (add -est to one-syllable adverbs and most or least before longer adverbs) forms. |
My cousin runs fast. Grandmother speaks softly. |
My cousin runs faster than my brother. Grandmother speaks more softly than her daughter. |
My cousin runs fastest in games like soccer. Grandmother speaks most softly in a large group | |
| Irregular adverbs do not follow the usual pattern. | Tom sang badly in the choir. | Bob sang worse than Tom. | Joe sang the worst of all. |
(LA.05.06) Verb usage rules:
| The verb "to be": These are all forms of the verb that means a state of being: am, is, are, was, were. | Joey and I was tired after swimming! (This sentence has the wrong form, although it is in past tense. It should say "were" instead of "was.") | |
| Regular verbs: Most verbs are regular. You add ed to regular verbs when you state a past action or use has, have, or had with the verb | I listen. Earlier I listened. I have listened. He talks. Earlier he talked. He has talked. | |
| Irregular verbs: Some verbs are irregular. Usually you do not add ed to an irregular verb when you state a past action or use has, have, or had with the verb. Instead of adding ed, the word changes. | I speak. Earlier I spoke. I have spoken. She runs. Earlier she ran. She has run. | |
| Auxiliary verbs: Auxiliary verbs (also called helping verbs) include has, had, and have; do and did; and forms of the verb “be” (is, are, was, were, etc.). | Tubman had married before she escaped from slavery. (The verb had helps state a past action: had married.) | |
Tenses of Verbs:
Example: Today, we honor Tubman’s work. She serves as an inspiration for all of us.
Example: Ms. Tubman made 19 rescue trips. She even rescued her parents.
Example: I will remember her story forever. | ||
(LA.05.07) Literary genres:
Definition: Literary genres are types of literature. There are two main types of literature. Fiction is literature that is made-up. It comes from the writer’s imagination. Nonfiction is literature about real people, places, things, or ideas.
Example: biography, fantasy, historical fiction, essay
(LA.05.09) Metaphorical language:
Definition: A figure of speech which makes a direct comparison between two unlike things.
Examples: Similes – “The snow was like a shawl.” (Similes make direct comparisons using like or as.)
Metaphors- “The sea became a wildcat.” (Metaphors compare without using the words like or as.)
Personification – “The low clouds bumped into the mountains.” (Personification gives a nonhuman idea, object, or animal a human characteristic.)
(LA.05.09) Idiom:
Definition: Words used in a special way that may be different from their literal meaning.
Example: Rush-hour traffic moves at a snail’s pace. (The idiom at a snail's pace means “very slowly.”)
(LA.05.11) Story board:
Definition: A panel with sketches showing changes in action and scene of a story.
(LA.05.11) Bubbling:
Definition: A method of brainstorming where you start with the topic in a big circle in the middle of a page. As you think about the topic, draw more circles, each with one or two words to remind you of an idea or thought that goes with the topic.
(LA.05.13) Causality:
Definition: The relationship between a cause and its effect.
Example: In the book Charlotte's Web, Mr. and Mrs. Zuckerman decide not to kill the pig Wilber because of the messages that Charlotte the spider weaves into her web.
(LA.05.13) Author’s perspective:
Definition: It is important to interpret the author’s viewpoint. Ask yourself what the writer wants the reader to think, believe or do after reading this piece.
(LA.05.15) Synonyms:
Definition: Synonyms are words with similar meanings.
Example: Raja and Harris often get into skirmishes, but they don’t let these little arguments stop their friendship. (Skirmishes are little arguments.)
(LA.05.15) Word connotations:
Definition: The connotation of a word is the meaning or feeling it suggests beyond its dictionary meaning.
Example: She felt like an insect under his withering gaze. (Insect has connotations of being small and insignificant.)
(LA.05.19) Sequentially:
Definition: In order from beginning to end, or in the correct order of steps to achieve a specific result.
©2003 Galena City School District
