Definitions for Language Arts 8:
(LA.08.01) Apply subject-verb (S-V) agreement rule:
Basic Principle: Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs.
Example: My brother is a nutritionist. My sisters are mathematicians.
| Compound subjects: A compound subject is composed of two or more simple subjects. | Agreement rule:
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Examples:
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| Collective nouns: A collective noun is a common noun that names a group. | Agreement rule: A collective noun is singular when it refers to a group considered as one unit and plural when it refers to the individuals in the group. | Example: So, if we're talking about eggs, we could say "A dozen is probably not enough." But if we're talking playing with our friends, we could say, "A dozen are coming over this afternoon." | |
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Collective pronouns: Basic Principle: A pronoun usually refers to something earlier in the text (its antecedent) and must agree in number — singular/plural — with the thing to which it refers. When a collective noun (such as "team," "group," or "chorus") applies to the group as a whole, use a singular pronoun to refer to that noun. When a collective pronoun refers to members acting individually, choose a plural pronoun |
Agreement rule: The indefinite pronouns anyone, anybody, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, no one, and nobody are always singular. The same is true of either and neither, which are always singular even though they seem to be referring to two things.
Some indefinite pronouns are particularly troublesome. Everyone and everybody certainly feel like more than one person and, therefore, students are sometimes tempted to use a plural verb with them. They are always singular, though. Each is often followed by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the cars), thus confusing the verb choice. Each, too, is always singular and requires a singular verb. |
Examples:
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| Relative pronouns: A relative pronoun relates an adjective clause to the noun or pronoun it modifies. (who/whom/whose/what/which/that) | Agreement rule: The verb must agree with the subject, even when an intervening clause might give the appearance of having a different number than the subject itself. |
Examples:
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| Both clauses in a complex sentence: A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. | Agreement rule: Each clause contains both a subject and a verb. The verb of each subject must match the subject to which it belongs. | Example: Although he claims to be 79 years old, records show his age as only 65. |
(LA.08.02) Use adjectives to modify nouns:
Definition: Adjectives describe or modify nouns. The articles - a, an, and the - are adjectives.
Examples: the tall professor, a solid commitment, the six-year-old child, the unhappiest, richest man
(LA.08.02) Use adverbs to modify adjectives and predicates:
Definition: Adverbs describe or modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
Modifying a verb: He drove slowly. (Answers the question: How did he drive?
Modifying an adjective: He drove a very fast car. (Answers the question: How fast was his car?)
Modifying a verb: She moved quite slowly down the aisle. (Answers the question: How slowly did she move?)
(LA.08.02) Form the adverbial forms of regular adjectives:
Definition: Words that end in -ly are adverbs. Many regular adjectives can become adverbs by adding -ly.
Examples: wonderful and wonderfully (The students showed a wonderful attitude. The students showed a wonderfully casual attitude.)
skillful and skillfully (She is such a skillful pianist. She can play the harp just as skillfully.)
(LA.08.02) Use correct form of comparative regular and irregular adjectives and adverbs:
Definition: The comparative form of an adjective or adverb compares two persons, places, things, or ideas by adding -er, more, or less. The superlative form of an adjective or adverb compares three or more persons, places, things or ideas, by adding -est, most, or least. Irregular adjectives and adverbs are ones that do not follow the regular pattern.
Regular adjectives: rich, richer, richest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful
Irregular adjectives: bad, worse, worst
Regular adverbs: fast, faster, fastest; skillfully, less skillfully, least skillfully
Irregular adverbs: well, better, best
(LA.08.03) Combine up to three sentences using a variety of strategies with word economy:
| Appositional phrases: | Definition: An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it. Frequently another kind of phrase will serve in apposition. |
Examples:
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| Coordinating conjunctions: | Definition: Coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, nor, for, yet, so) can join short independent clauses to create longer sentences. | Example: The car was
white. It became dirty after the rain storm. Combination: The car was white, but it became dirty after the rain storm. | |
| Kernal sentences into prepositional phrases: | Definition: Short "basic" sentences are called "kernal" sentences, which can be combined into one sentence which has considerably better flow and emphasis than the original (with its short, choppy sentences) had. |
Kernal sentences: John and his wife went to the grocery store. Their son went with him. They bought butter and cheese. This was on Tuesday. Combination: John and his wife, with their son, went to the grocery store on Tuesday for butter and cheese. | |
| Infinitives: | Definition: A student should be able to recognize infinitives and combine them into larger, more complex sentences, if possible. Infinitive: the root of a verb plus the word to. |
Example: George went into the store. George will buy milk. Combination: George went into the store to buy milk | |
| Adverbial clauses: | Definition: Adverbial clauses provide information about what is going on in the main (independent) clause: how, when, or why. Students should use adverbial clauses to create longer, more complex sentences, if possible. |
Example: Steve knew a lot about mining. He wanted to write a book about it. Combination: Steve wanted to write a book about mining because he knew so much about it. Example: Sam and Nancy swam two miles. Then they rested on the beach. Combination: Sam and Nancy rested on the beach after they had swum two miles | |
| Nominalizations: | Definition: Usually (but not always), an absolute phrase (also called a nominative absolute) is a group of words consisting of a noun or pronoun and a participle as well as any related. modifiers. Absolute phrases do not directly connect to or modify any specific word in the rest of the sentence; instead, they modify the entire sentence, adding information. They are always treated as parenthetical elements and are set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma or a pair of commas (sometimes by a dash or pair of dashes). Notice that absolute phrases contain a subject (which is often modified by a participle), but not a true finite verb. |
Example: The season is nearly finished. Rebecca Lobo and Sophie Witherspoon have emerged as true leaders. Combination: The season nearly finished, Rebecca Lobo and Sophie Witherspoon emerged as true leaders. | |
| Relative clauses: | Relative clauses are dependent clauses introduced by a relative pronoun (that, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, and of which). Relative clauses can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive. In a relative clause, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb (remember that all clauses contain a subject-verb relationship) and refers to (relates to) something preceding the clause. |
Example: The garden had been abandoned for years. Giuseppe said it had to be replanted. Combination: Giuseppe said that the garden, which had been abandoned for years, had to be replanted. | |
| Kernal sentences into parallel constructions: | Definition: Parallel constructions repeat similar grammatical structures (words, phrases, or sentences) to give writing rhythm. | Kernal sentences: The shoes were floppy. The shoes were old. The shoes looked abandoned. Possible combinations: The floppy old shoes looked abandoned. The shoes, old and floppy, looked abandoned. The shoes looked old, floppy, and abandoned. The shoes flopped there, abandoned and old. |
(LA.08.05) Match pronouns to antecedents in number, case, and gender:
Antecedents: The antecedent is the noun that the pronoun refers to or replaces. All pronouns have antecedents. Number = singular or plural. Case = nominative (subject), possessive (ownership), objective (object). Gender = male, female, neuter. Examples: Students must see their counselor before the end of the semester. James must see his counselor, because he has questions for her.
Personal pronouns: A personal pronoun takes the place of a noun. Examples are I, me, my, mine; we, us, our, ours; you, your, yours; they, them, their, theirs; he, him his, she, her, hers, it, its
Relative pronouns: A relative pronoun (who/whoever/which/that) relates adjective phrases to the noun or pronoun it modifies. Example: Cynthia, who practices more than her teammates, usually makes the most baskets in a game. The word who connects or relates the adjective phrase that describes Cynthia to that noun.
(LA.08.06) Correct sentence syntax errors:
| Sentence fragments missing subjects: | Definition: A sentence fragment does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone. The subject is the part of the sentence about which something is said, the part of the sentence that "does" the verb. |
Example: Working far into the night in an effort to salvage her little boat. This sentence needs a subject and a helping verb to be complete: Isobel was working far into the night in an effort to salvage her little boat. | |
| Sentence fragments missing predicates: | Definition: The predicate of a sentence contains the verb. It tells what the subject is or does. | Example: The hockey team here every Saturday. This sentence needs a verb to make it complete: The hockey team practices here every Saturday. | |
| Predicates composed of verbals (gerunds & infinitives): | Definitions: Verbals are noun forms of verbs. A gerund is a noun that is formed from a verb, usually by adding -ing. It serves as a subject, ofject, or complement. An infinitive is an uninflected form of a verb usually introduced by "to." An infinitive can serve either as a noun, adverb, or adjective. While either gerunds or infinitives can be part of the predicate, they cannot be the verb of the sentence. |
Gerunds: The thief admitted stealing the money. The manager could not face going bankrupt. We succeeded in selling all the goods. Mr. Roberts objects to being treated like that. Infinitives: I learned to drive when I was 18. My boss asked the secretary to stay for dinner. To see is to believe. Jim is expected to program computers at his new job. | |
| Incomplete passive constructions: | Definition: In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a do-er or a be-er, but is acted upon by something else. There is nothing inherently wrong with the passive voice, but if you can say the same thing in the active mode, do so. Your text will have more pizzazz as a result, since passive verb constructions tend to lie about in their pajamas and avoid actual work. | Example: The new policy was approved. | |
| Comma splice errors: | Definition: A comma splice incorrectly joins two independent clauses with a comma. | Example: Margie walked into the room, she found a mouse on her desk. It should read: Margie walked into the room; she found a mouse on her desk. or Margie walked into the room. She found a mouse on her desk. | |
| Dangling modifiers: | Definition: When we begin a sentence with a modifying word, phrase, or clause, we must make sure the next thing that comes along can, in fact, be modified by that modifier. When a modifier improperly modifies something, it is called a "dangling modifier." This often happens with beginning participial phrases, making "dangling participles" an all too common phenomenon. | Example: Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, the car seemed to run better. This indicates that the car changed its own oil. It should read: Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, Fred found he could get much better gas mileage.
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| Dangling dependent clauses: | Definition: A dependent clause, also known as a subordinate clause (a clause in a sentence that can’t work alone as a sentence), needs to be connected to an independent clause in order to create a complete sentence. | Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy. The dependent clause "when Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz" cannot stand alone. | |
| Run-on sentences: | Definition: Students will be able to distinguish a run-on sentence and correct it, if asked to. A run-on sentence is two complete ideas incorrectly joined. | Example: The on-line spell check and thesaurus are especially handy they do not take the place of a good dictionary. This sentence is incorrect and can be fixed by adding a semi-colon or making two sentences out of the one. The on-line spell check and thesaurus are especially handy. They do not take the place of a good dictionary. | |
| Join two independent clauses: | Definition: Students should know that a semi-colon must be used when two independent clauses are not joined together by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, nor). Often, a comma is mistakenly used. | Example: Willie built a tree house; he painted it green. |
(LA.08.08) Graphic strategies to analyze literature:
Graph the rising and falling action of a story plot: Every story has a plot and every plot has certain elements that the student should be able to identify. Look for the introduction, inciting incident, climax, crisis, resolution, and denouement. (Shakespeare’s plays are wonderful to graph.)
Use webs: Much like bubbling, students use a web system to draw out as many ideas about a topic before deciding upon what exactly they want to write about. The main idea goes into a circle in the center of the paper, with related ideas radiating out from it in other circles radiating out from it.
Use story boards: Students should be able to draw scenes of what is happening in their stories, in a sequential order of the unfolding of events.
Use bubbles: A pre-writing exercise where students should be able to gather ideas for a writing topic by brainstorming with the use of the bubbling method. When using the bubbling method, a student chooses a topic, such as cars, and then, on a piece of paper, lists as many things the writer can think of related to the central theme. The bubbles do not all relate to a central theme, as in webs.
(LA.08.09) Differentiate between fiction and non-fiction:
Fiction and non-fiction: Fiction is made-up; non-fiction is true.
Example: The Prince and the Pauper, written by Mark Twain in 1882, is fiction; The Narrative of Frederick Douglass, written in 1845, is non-fiction.
(LA.08.09) Personal narratives:
Definition: A student should be able to identify when a writer is employing the personal narrative, such as telling a story that involves the author.
Example: The Diary of Anne Frank, by Anne Frank, or The Hiding Place by Corrie ten Boom
(LA.08.10) Literary devices:
Irony: Irony is the difference between appearance and reality; it is using words that mean the opposite of what one really intends or a result that is the opposite of what is expected. Example: In Rona Maynard’s “The Fan Club,” the main character decides to join the “in” group by making fun of another character. It is ironic because earlier in the story she gave a speech about the need to overcome prejudice and to tolerate others regardless of their differences. Another example is in O. Henry's Gift of the Magi when the husband sells his watch to buy his wife a brush while she is selling her hair to buy him a watch-chain.
Foreshadowing is the act of hinting at events that will happen later in a poem, story, or play. Example: In Patrick McKissack’s short story “The 11:59,” the main character’s fate is hinted at when the reader learns that all retired Pullman car porters meet their deaths in the form of the 11:59 train.
Figurative language is writing or speech meant to be understood imaginatively instead of literally. Many writers, especially poets, use figurative language to help the reader see things in new ways. Figurative language includes such literary techniques such as hyperbole, alliteration, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, idiom, onomatopoeia, puns, and simile.
Dialogue is conversation involving two or more people of characters.
Pace: Students should be able to identify the pace (or flow) of a story. Usually a boring story will develop slowly, whereas an exciting story will be fast-paced, keeping the reader interested and on the edge of his/her seat the entire time.
Tone is a writer’s or speaker’s attitude toward the subject or the reader. (Also known as voice.)
Symbol: A symbol is a thing that stands for or represents both itself and something else. Some traditional symbols include doves for peace; the color green for jealousy; roses for beauty; etc.
(LA.08.13) Draw inferences from grade level reading selections:
Draw a conclusion from synthesized details: A student should be able to draw conclusions from different details and hints in a story to come to an acceptable conclusion. Not all literature will have conclusions that will be agreed upon by all readers. As long as the reader can provide evidence for his/her beliefs from examples in the text, then they will have a valid, defendable conclusion.
Analyze metaphor and personification: Can the student understand when a metaphor (a figure of speech in which one thing is spoken or written about as if it were another: all the world's a stage) is used for literary effect? For personification (a figure of speech in which something not human is describes as if it were: the kites waved goodbye as they dipped over the hill), a student should be able to appreciate the author’s utilization of this literary device and recognize how it relates to reality.
Analyze symbols: A symbol is a thing that stands for or represents both itself and something else. A student should be able to interpret symbols as they relate to the understanding of the plot.
Moral orientation of the first person narrator: Is the narrator (first person point of view) a good character or a bad one? The student should be able to determine what kind of character this narrator has. The narrator takes part in the action and refers to himself/herself using words such as I and we.
Infer unarticulated character emotions, morality, and motivation from dialog and action: The student should be able to decide for himself/herself whether a character’s character is of good standing and thereby possibly predict future actions and events, all from inference (based on the author’s character development).
Abstract concepts from concrete details: An abstract concept is one that can’t be directly seen, touched, tasted, heard, or smelled. A concrete detail is the opposite.
Explain inferences in writing: Can the student draw conclusions from what the author is implying?
(LA.08.14) Use analogies to predict events:
Definition: An analogy is comparing things similar in some respects but otherwise unalike. Can the student appreciate analogies (metaphors such as killing him with kindness) and use them to figure out what may happen to the character in the future?
(LA.08.14) Demonstrate the connection between literary themes and personal experiences:
Definition: Universals, a literary theme that describes situations that characters experience which almost all humans at one time experience, make the literature more valuable for the reader because they can relate, and possibly find deeper meaning for themselves. The plays of Shakespeare are still read today because of the universal trials and tribulations many of his characters experience.
(LA.08.14) Demonstrate metacognitive awareness of comprehension strategies:
Definition: Metacognitive theory deals with cognitive self-knowledge, that is, what individuals know about their own thinking. In metacognitive terms, a good learner is "one who has ample metacognitive knowledge about the self as learner, about the nature of the cognitive task at hand, and about appropriate strategies for achieving cognitive goals." A student should be able to demonstrate that he/she can employ many different strategies needed to comprehend literature.
Example: Can the student differentiate between irony and sarcasm? Can the student appreciate foreshadowing? Can the student understand metaphors? Can the student choose the best techniques for analyzing a particular piece of literature?
(LA.08.16) Use synonyms to define new words:
Definition: A synonym is a word or phrase that means the same as another.
Example: If you come across the word bellicose and don’t know exactly what it means, look closely at the context in which it is used and guess its meaning by trying synonyms: "Saddam Hussein’s bellicose attitude toward his own countrymen has caused the United States to assist the Iraqi people in earning their liberation." Sometimes the synonyms are available in the text. For instance, there could be another sentence in the paragraph saying, "Even his own people are tired of his eagerness to fight each challenge." The student should be able to extrapolate the general meaning of bellicose from reading the other sentence.
(LA.08.19) Write a personal narrative:
Definition: A personal narrative is simply a story of an event in the author’s life.
Example: Often personal narratives center on the rites of passage that many children experience (e.g. first day of school, last baby tooth falling out, sweet sixteen birthday, etc.).
(LA.08.19) Write a persuasive essay:
Definition: An essay where the writer is the only one communicating a point of view and he/she is trying to persuade the reader, without causing them to quit reading.
Example: A successful persuasive essay examines not only the author’s point of view and belief, but also that of the opposition. The author acknowledges the oppositional point of view but rebuffs it with logical arguments and opinions to support his/her beliefs.
(LA.08.19) Write an evaluative essay:
Definition: An evaluative essay is a review, such as a book report.
Example: A good evaluative essay will use comparison and contrast as a way of showing what happened in the book, play, movie you are reviewing. Be careful not to tell, but instead show what has unfolded. Allow your reader to be the judge of its value, and avoid phrases like: “I loved this,” or “It was beautiful.”
(LA.08.19) Write an essay of classification or definition:
Definition: A classification essay will break a large subject into categories for the purpose of analysis, usually connecting two disparate elements (two things that don’t seem to go together) and showing patterns of connectedness that the reader may not have been aware of beforehand.
Example: An essay on comic book superheroes and their arch enemies. (What do all the villains have in common?)
(LA.08.21) Use transitional words and sentences between paragraphs:
Definition: Transitional words or sentences link one paragraph to the next and assist the reader in moving from one thought to the next. A topic sentence (starting each paragraph) should contain a transitional clause that refers to the previous paragraph. By the same token, the last sentence of a paragraph (sometimes known as a clincher sentence) should link to what’s coming in the next paragraph.
Example: If the theme of the first paragraph (of a five paragraph essay) is an introduction to the three main points that are to be spelled out, then the concluding sentence of that first paragraph should contain a link to the second paragraph’s main theme (the first of the three themes). A small sampling of transitional words include the following:
Addition: also, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover, again
Consequence: accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, otherwise, so then, therefore, thus, thereupon
Summarizing: after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by and large, in any case, in any event, in brief, in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the final analysis, in the long run, on balance, to sum up, to summarize, finally
Generalizing: as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, ordinarily, usually
Restatement: in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is to say, in short, in brief, to put it differently
Contrast and Comparison: contrast, by the same token, conversely, instead, likewise, on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather, similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, in contrast
Sequence: at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time, for now, for the time being, the next step, in time, in turn, later on, meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later, while, earlier, simultaneously, afterward, in conclusion
Diversion: by the way, incidentally
Illustration: for example, for instance, for one thing
Similarity: likewise, similar, moreover
Direction: here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite, under, above, to the left, to the right, in the distance
(LA.08.21) Use showing not telling sentences:
Definition: Don’t tell the reader what to think. Instead, use descriptive words that will allow the reader to imagine the setting.
Example: Telling: My dad’s car was really old.
Showing: My dad’s 1947 rust-red Ford pick-up was tired from all its years of service.
©2003 Galena City School District
